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Attributes associated with women

Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity tin be understood every bit socially constructed,^[1] and there is besides some prove that some behaviors considered feminine are influenced past both cultural factors and biological factors.^{[1] [2] [three] [4]} To what extent femininity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.^{[2] [3] [4]} It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,^{[5] [6]} equally both males and females can exhibit feminine traits.

Traits traditionally cited as feminine include gracefulness, gentleness, empathy, humility, and sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary beyond societies and individuals, and are influenced by a variety of social and cultural factors.

Overview and history [edit]

Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in common usage, there is little scientific agreement about what femininity and masculinity are.^{[ii] : v} Among scholars, the concept of femininity has varying meanings.^[9]

Professor of English language Tara Williams has suggested that modern notions of femininity in English-speaking order began during the medieval menstruation at the fourth dimension of the bubonic plague in the 1300s.^[10] Women in the Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their traditional roles of maiden, wife, or widow.^{[10] : 4} Subsequently the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in social club. The words femininity and womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer effectually 1380.^{[eleven] [12]}

In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economical fate determines the figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman".^[xiii] The thought was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman^[14] and in 1990 past American philosopher Judith Butler,^[15] who theorized that gender is not stock-still or inherent just is rather a socially divers prepare of practices and traits that have, over fourth dimension, grown to become labelled every bit feminine or masculine.^[16] Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious, ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for annihilation requiring muscular exertion" and to projection "shyness, reserve and a display of frailty, fear and incompetence".^[17]

Scientific efforts to mensurate femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their One thousand–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists. The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured, opposite to one another, and that imbalances betwixt them led to mental disorders.^[18]

Alongside the women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move abroad from the K–F model, developing an interest in androgyny.^[18] The Bem Sex Office Inventory and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests, researchers plant that the two dimensions varied independently of i another, casting dubiousness on the earlier view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities.^[18]

Second-wave feminists, influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences betwixt females and males were innate, the concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed, with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to men.^{[19] [20]} Girls, 2d-moving ridge feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television receiver, and school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors.^[19] In her meaning 1963 volume The Feminine Mystique, American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that the central to women'due south subjugation lay in the social structure of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent,^[21] and called for a "drastic reshaping of the cultural image of femininity."^[22]

Behavior and personality [edit]

Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness,^[ix] supportiveness,^{[23] [24]} gentleness, ^{[24] [25]} warmth,^{[23] [25]} passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness,^[eighteen] modesty, humility, empathy,^[24] affection, tenderness,^[23] and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding^[25] have been cited equally stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within societies.^[23]

The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by scholars, as femininity is related to women's and girls' sexual entreatment to men and boys.^[ix] Femininity is sometimes linked with sexual objectification.^{[27] [28]} Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine.^[28]

Scholars accept debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors.^{[iv] : 29 [29] [30]} Social and biological influences are thought to exist mutually interacting during development.^{[4] : 29 [3] : 218–225} Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined.^{[two] : 8–ix [3] : 153–154} Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during evolution and in adulthood).^{[4] : 29–31 [2] : 7–13 [3] : 153–154}

In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs breast-stroke the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the nascency of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine management".^[31] This theory, notwithstanding, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.^{[32] [33]} In 2005, scientific inquiry investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat touch behavior, and a person'due south gender identity tin can develop as early on every bit three years of age.^[34] Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.^[30]

People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambivalence may blur gender nomenclature.^{[35] [36]} Modern conceptualizations of femininity also rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized choices made by women.^[37]

Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female person anatomical differences.^{[38] [ page needed ]} Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.^{[27] [39]}

In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Dutch psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors direct connected with procreation can, strictly speaking, be described every bit feminine or masculine, and nonetheless every society worldwide recognizes many additional behaviors as more than suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus femininity" as one of 5 basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions. Hofstede describes as feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes equally feminine those countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life, and the resolution of conflicts by compromise and negotiation.^{[40] [41]}

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and counterinsurgency are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and counterinsurgency are described by Jung every bit elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression every bit a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female, information technology is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.^[42]

Habiliment and appearance [edit]

In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine advent has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear peel, a narrow waist, and piffling or no body pilus or facial hair.^{[5] [43] [44]} In other cultures, all the same, some expectations are dissimilar. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm pilus is not considered unfeminine.^[45] Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink was associated with boys and bluish with girls.^[46]

These feminine ideals of dazzler take been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist.^{[44] [47]} In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the modern feminine ideal of thinness.^[48]

Muslim woman wearing a head dress (Hijab)

In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty and morality.^{[49] [l]} Some, all the same, see information technology as a symbol of objectification and oppression.^{[51] [52]}

In history [edit]

In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity

Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.^{[53] [54]}

In Aboriginal Arab republic of egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, wear was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Aboriginal Greece wore himations; and in Aboriginal Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.^[55]

The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked brow and beehive or turban-way hairdo.^[55]

Trunk amending [edit]

Torso amending is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.^[56] I such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more than aristocratic feature in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking difficult and painful.^{[57] [58]}

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, cervix rings are worn in lodge to elongate the cervix. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine dazzler.^[59] The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for example, do this course of body modification.^{[60] [61]}

• 

  In China until the twentieth century, tiny, bound anxiety for women were considered aloof and feminine

• 

  The Kayan people of Burma (Myanmar) associate the wearing of neck rings with feminine beauty.^[62]

Traditional roles [edit]

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar (c. 2008). Principal and secondary schoolhouse teaching is often considered a feminine occupation.

Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that treats men and masculinity as different from, and contrary to, women and femininity.^[ix] In patriarchal societies, including Western ones, conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to the subordination of women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less decumbent to violence.^[9]

Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations, resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional gender roles.^[63] These stereotypes include that women accept a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, take greater transmission dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and accept a more than attractive concrete appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.^[64] Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality^[65] and the gender pay gap.^[66] Sure medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are dominated past a masculine culture^[67] and have a higher salary.^{[68] [69]}

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably equally potential leaders.^[70] Nonetheless, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.^[71] Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such equally emotion.^[71]

Explanations for occupational imbalance [edit]

Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that principal sexual practice characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to carry children, acquired a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this sectionalization.^[72]

The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female person investment in higher instruction and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human uppercase theory does not explain the sexual division of labor considering many occupations tied to feminine roles, such equally administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations, such every bit truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.^[64]

Role congruity theory [edit]

Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively. It supports the empirical testify that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other. Information technology is sometimes used to explain why people take a trend to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader office less favorably when information technology is enacted by a woman.^{[73] [74] [75] [76] [77]}

Faith and politics [edit]

The Altai consider shamanism a feminine office.^[78]

Asian religions [edit]

Shamanism may have originated as early on as the Paleolithic period, predating all organized religions.^{[79] [fourscore]} Archeological finds accept suggested that the earliest known shamans were female,^[81] and contemporary shamanic roles such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women.^{[82] [83]}

In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female person aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative ability, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe^[84] and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male attribute, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. Every bit the female person manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal artistic forcefulness Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life forcefulness of creation.

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary forcefulness of the female one-half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can exist characterized as dull, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, moisture, and passive.^[85]

Judeo-Christian theology [edit]

Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia

Although the Judeo-Christian God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or rex—many theologians fence that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God.^[86] According to the Canon of the Catholic Church, God "is neither homo nor adult female: he is God".^[87] Several recent writers, such as feminist theologian Sallie McFague, have explored the idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah, God is compared to a female parent comforting her child, while in the Book of Deuteronomy, God is said to have given nativity to State of israel.^[86]

The Volume of Genesis describes the divine cosmos of the world out of zilch or ex nihilo. In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is described as feminine. In many books of the Old Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach, wisdom is personified and chosen she. According to David Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must exist intimately identified with God.^[88]

The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah, in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine.^{[ citation needed ]}

In the Jewish Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the strength in the artistic process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perception) is the not bad mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the aforementioned way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps information technology within her until it's time to give nascence. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the creation of the Universe.^[89]

Communism [edit]

Porcelain statue of a woman in communist China - Cat Street Market, Hong Kong

Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood as muscular, plainly dressed and strong,^[90] with practiced female person communists shown every bit undertaking hard transmission labour, using guns, and eschewing self-adornment.^[91] Contemporary Western journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish" perversions.^{[92] [93]} In revolutionary China in the 1950s, Western journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail smoothen" and wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all solar day, without seeing a brim or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of perfume; without hearing the click of loftier heels, or catching the glint of legs sheathed in nylon."^{[94] [95]} In communist Poland, changing from loftier heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the bourgeois to socialism."^[96]

Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity every bit stiff and difficult-working began to also include more than traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral virtue,^{[90] [97] : 53} requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres", including working at jobs non traditionally regarded as feminine in nature.^{[97] : 55–threescore}

Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois and consumerist, such equally helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We Survived Communism & Even Laughed, Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote almost "a complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, Eastward Berlin: 'Wait at us – we don't even look like women. In that location are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste. There is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no overnice lingerie[']"^{[98] : 31} and "Sometimes I think the real Iron Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful apparel, of pictures from women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more dangerous than any secret weapon, considering they make one desire that 'otherness' desperately enough to risk one's life trying to escape."^{[98] : 28–9}

As communist countries such equally Romania and the Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers and plain-Jane factory paw" depictions they had previously been publishing. Equally perfumes, cosmetics, fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Marriage, Eastward Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary, they began to exist presented not every bit conservative frivolities but every bit signs of socialist modernity.^[99] In China, with the economic liberation started past Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s, the land stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist ideology began to ascension.^[100]

In men [edit]

Flowers and makeup are stereotypically associated with femininity in Western culture.^{[101] [102]}

In Western culture, men who display qualities considered feminine are often stigmatized and labeled as weak.^[9] Effeminate men are ofttimes associated with homosexuality,^{[103] [104]} although femininity is not necessarily related to a human being's sexual orientation.^[105] Because men are pressured to exist masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the style 1 is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality.^{[106] [107]}

Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity past men that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western cultures. Men who wear wearable associated with femininity are frequently called cross-dressers.^[108] A elevate queen is a human being who wears flamboyant women's clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for amusement purposes.

Feminist views [edit]

Feminist philosophers such every bit Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir^[109] contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex activity and/or gender.^[110]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard equally constricting standards of female person beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.^[111]

Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists, argue that feminism should not devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.^{[112] [113]}

Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men is consistent with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity straight threatens the notion of male person superiority besides every bit the thought that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced past women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to reply negatively to sons who similar Barbie dolls and ballet or vesture nail shine than they are to daughters exhibiting comparably masculine behaviours.^{[114] : 284–292}

Julia Serano's transfeminist critique [edit]

In her 2007 volume Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Adult female on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity, American transsexual author and biologist Julia Serano offers a transfeminist critique of femininity, notable especially for its telephone call to empower femininity:^{[114] [115]}

In this book, I intermission with past attempts in feminism and queer theory to dismiss femininity by characterizing information technology equally "artificial" or "performance." Instead, I fence that certain aspects of femininity (every bit well every bit masculinity) are natural and tin both precede socialization and supplant biological sex activity. For these reasons, I believe that information technology is negligent for feminists to only focus on those who are female person-bodied, or for transgender activists to only talk virtually binary gender norms, as no form of gender equity can ever truly be achieved until we first piece of work to empower all forms of femininity.

Serano notes that some behaviors, such equally frequent smiling or avoiding centre contact with strangers, are considered feminine considering they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from women'southward attempts to negotiate through a world which is sometimes hostile to them.^{[114] : 322}

Serano argues that because contemporary culture is sexist, it assigns negative connotations to, or trivializes, behaviours understood to be feminine such as gossiping, behaving emotionally or decorating. It also recasts and reimagines femininity through a male heterosexual lens, for example interpreting women'south empathy and altruism as husband-and-child-focused rather than globally focused, and interpreting women's interest in aesthetics as intended solely to entice or attract men.^{[114] : 327–8} She writes that femininity is frequently understood equally perplexing and mysterious, and notes that words like spell-bounden and enchanting are often used to depict feminine women, illustrating that men don't need to empathize and appreciate women's experiences in the same mode in which women must sympathise and capeesh theirs, and indeed that men are discouraged from doing so.^{[114] : 292–iii}

See also [edit]

• Feminine psychology
• Feminism
• Feminization (folklore)
• Effeminacy
• Gender role
• Gender studies
• Marianismo
• Masculinity
• Nature versus nurture
• Sociology of gender
• Transfeminine

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External links [edit]

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femininity

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